Which of the following schedules would most probably produce the greatest resistance to extinction?
C. Reinforcement for an operation in operant conditioning can be provided at various schedules. When every operation is reinforced this is called continuous schedule. Intermittent reinforcement can occur at a fixed ratio (every third operation is rewarded), variable ratio (random rewards for operations), fixed interval (operation that takes place at every fourth minute is rewarded), or variable interval (random time intervals for reward delivery). Though learning is relatively slower, resistance to extinction increases with partial reinforcement. The variable ratio schedule is the most difficult to extinguish. This is the principle behind slot machines and gambling addiction.
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According to Skinner, a reinforcement is defined as any event that:
B. Reinforcement occurs when an event following a response increases an organism’s tendency to make that response. Primary reinforcers are events that are inherently reinforcing because they satisfy biological needs, for example food, water, sex, etc. Secondary or conditioned reinforcers are events that acquire reinforcing qualities by associating with primary reinforcers, for example money, good grades in exams, praise, etc.
Which one of the following is a true statement about learned helplessness?
B. The concept of learned helplessness was proposed by Martin Seligman. Seligman noted that when an animal is confronted with aversive stimuli from which escape is impossible, the animal stopped trying to escape. This was initially used as a behavioural model for depression. Cognitive triad of depression was first proposed by Aaron T Beck. The triad consists of a negative view of self, the world, and the future, that is worthlessness, helplessness, and hopelessness. The triad forms the theoretical basis for cognitive therapy in depression.
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According to Seligman, people are more prone to develop phobia towards which one of the following?
E. Seligman’s concept of stimulus preparedness involves a species-specific inclination to be conditioned in certain ways. He believed that this was a product of evolution and was necessary for the survival of species. Accordingly, genuine threats to the survival of our ancestors easily elicit phobic responses in humans, for example snakes, darkness, etc. Hence it is more common for people to develop snake phobias than to develop sheep phobias, even though they may never have had any direct adventure with a snake.
A person who has never flown develops a fear of flying.
Which one of the following best explains the above process?
A. Observational or vicarious learning (proposed by Albert Bandura) occurs when one’s behaviour is influenced by observing models. A model may be any significant person or even an incident on television. So a person may develop a fear of flying after seeing an air disaster in a movie or a hijacking event on the television. Shaping is the progressive reinforcement of responses that are close to a desired response. This progressive reinforcement is continued until the desired response (usually a complex behaviour) is elicited. It is based on operant conditioning and works as the principle behind training animals to do circus tricks. Mowrer’s hypothesis puts forth a two-staged acquisition process for phobia wherein, initially, classical conditioning associates a fear response to a neutral stimulus. Later, through operant conditioning, this fear is maintained, as avoidance of the feared stimulus serves as a potential negative reinforcer. Note that in the scenario portrayed in this question there has been no previous exposure to the feared stimulus (flying). Hence operant conditioning and Mowrer’s hypothesis can be safely ruled out.
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